Farm fires and falling air quality - A seasonal pattern that continues to repeat

As Delhi-NCR enters its early winter pollution phase, the air quality has once again dipped into the “severe” category, reigniting debate over the seasonal influx of smoke from agricultural regions in North India. While local emissions remain the baseline source of pollution throughout the year, satellite observations show that stubble fires primarily from Punjab, along with contributions from parts of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh add a significant spike in particulate matter during late October and early November. The recurring pattern raises a critical question: despite sustained policy push and technological options, why does the practice of residue burning continue each year at such scale?

Stubble burning, in simple terms, is the quick burning of paddy straw left behind after combine harvesting. The residue is bulky, high in silica, and has limited fodder value, making it difficult to remove or plough back in time. When burned, it releases large amounts of PM2.5 and PM10 particulate matter, along with carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, and black carbon, all of which severely degrade air quality and pose respiratory health risks. The practice is considered a primitive field-clearing method, rooted in the need for speed and low cost, but its environmental impact is disproportionate contributing to regional smog formation, soil nutrient loss, and long-term atmospheric warming.

Standing paddy and the race toward wheat sowing

Stubble burning remains primarily a cost and time-driven choice for farmers, especially where combine harvesters leave loose residue that is difficult to clear. Although stubble burning incidents have reduced over the past three seasons, the decline is uneven and varies by district and seasonal pressures across states : Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. This year’s continued fires show that economic and crop-cycle constraints still persist.

This stubble burning trend coincides with the completion of the paddy harvest. As per available state agricultural data for major paddy states till October 2025 , Punjab has harvested around 58% of its paddy crop, Haryana about 60%, Uttar Pradesh 36%, while Madhya Pradesh has completed 100% of harvesting.

With the wheat sowing window already open, farmers say they must clear fields quickly to avoid delays that could expose the wheat crop to late-season heat waves, reducing yield.

This paddy–wheat cropping cycle, which compresses harvesting paddy and sowing wheat into a very short window, remains a structural driver of stubble burning. Burning the straw is the fastest and cheapest clearing method, even as technological alternatives and government incentives exist.

Why Delhi's air quality worsens in this season

Delhi’s pollution in early winter results from multiple overlapping factors. The Stubble smoke transported under north-westerly winds adds a sharp spike in fine particulate matter (PM2.5).

Also, the falling temperatures and a shallow atmospheric boundary layer trap pollutants close to the ground. The issue gets compounded with local emissions from vehicles, industrial clusters, construction dust, waste burning and diesel generator use form the base pollution load present throughout the year. Pollution agencies and research-model assessments have repeatedly shown that while local emissions form the baseline, the seasonal smoke influx from agricultural burning amplifies severity, often pushing air pollution from “poor” to “severe” levels during late October and November.

Government measures and the ground reality

Both the Centre and state governments have rolled out multiple interventions to curb farm fires, focusing largely on crop-residue management. Subsidised machinery such as Happy Seeders, Super Straw Management Systems, and balers are being promoted to encourage farmers to adopt non-burning alternatives. Bio-decomposer sprays for in-situ decomposition and ex-situ models for straw utilisation in biomass power plants, ethanol units, cardboard units and packaging industries have also been pushed as sustainable replacements to burning. These measures operate alongside a framework of penalty enforcement under existing air-quality and environmental regulations.

Punjab has been particularly aggressive this season in promoting residue collection and supplying straw to industries. However, implementation on the ground continues to be uneven. Farmers argue that despite subsidies, machinery operation still involves high running costs, and the very narrow window between paddy harvest and wheat sowing leaves little time to process straw without risking yield delay. Equipment availability at the village cluster level is inconsistent and procurement by biomass buyers is often uncertain, delayed or geographically limited. In such a situation, many farmers, especially small and marginal cultivators, continue to find burning the quickest clearing option.

Because of these structural constraints, mechanised residue management is increasing, but burning persists especially among those with smaller landholdings. Penalties for stubble burning largely fall under Environmental Compensation powers issued under Section 5 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and implemented as per NGT directions. The Punjab Pollution Control Board has graded fines based on landholding size ₹2,500 for small farmers (up to 2 acres), ₹5,000 for medium (2–5 acres) and ₹15,000 for large (above 5 acres). In severe or repeat cases, FIRs may also be filed under the Air Act, 1981 or Section 223 of the BNS, 2023, though policing remains guarded given political sensitivities and strong farmer union influence. The “red-entry” system marking violations in land records has become a high-impact deterrent, as it can restrict access to subsidies, procurement benefits and future credit.

Over 72% of farmers in Punjab hold under 5 acres, making punitive action a highly delicate balancing exercise. Between 15 September and 23 October 2024, the PPCB reported 1,254 FIRs, 496 red entries and fines totalling ₹13.25 lakh (of which ₹11.67 lakh has been recovered). The Centre collected ₹1.48 crore in environmental compensation for the 2024 season so far.

The recurring spike each winter shows that the core problem is structural, not behavioural alone. Without crop diversification, assured alternative markets, real-time logistics support and scaling residue monetisation, the economic incentive to burn remains stronger. Enforcement helps, but cannot replace structural reform.